Chapter 2
The Research Process:
How We Find Things Out
封面故事
‧1984 年美國總統雷根建立國際太空站(ISS, International Space Station)
‧16 國參與，包括敵對的美蘇兩國
‧任務：觀察地球、製造、研發
‧問題：如何在太空中相處？
‧基本健康問題：如何維持運動？
–太空人要不斷的運動以防骨質疏鬆及維持肌肉彈性
‧有研究顯示只要震動骨頭就可以達到？
‧影響睡眠？
The Scientific Method
‧Specify a problem
‧Systematic observation
‧Form a hypothesis
‧Test the hypothesis with data
‧Formulate a theory
‧Test the theory
Specifying a problem
‧太空人：what, why, and how?
‧美國女太空人瑪莎
‧Tea time for many cultures: biological rhythms?
Observing events
‧Collecting data to establish facts that can be replicated
‧Two kinds:
–Directly observable
–Inferred
‧Consistent patterns (e.g., face)
‧E.g., Ekman’s studies (皮笑肉不笑)
Forming a hypothesis (theory)
‧Testable (measurable)
–E.g., sleeping and learning
Testing the hypothesis (theory)
‧Operational definition
–A definition of a variable that specifies how it is measured or manipulated.
‧Predictions and outcomes
–如果理論或假設是正確的話，那麼應該會發生…
Levels of Analysis
(Sleep apnea)
Designing Experiments--Independent Variable
The aspect of a situation that is intentionally varied
e.g., ISS 無分日夜，睡眠是否影響學習、記憶、問題解決？
‧Examples
–Amount of sleeping allowed
–Drug or placebo
–Visual or auditory presentation
–Temperature of room
Designing Experiments--Dependent Variable
The aspect of a situation that is measured while the independent
variable is changed
‧Examples
–Number of words recalled
–Speed of response
–Number of cigarettes smoked
–Electrical activity in the brain
Designing Experiments--Effects
The difference in the dependent variable that is due to changes in the
independent variable (因果關係）
‧Examples
–缺乏睡眠則記憶降低
–Visualization improves athletic performance
–Practice improves reading speed
Control group
‧A group that is treated exactly the same way as the experimental group,
except for the one aspect of the situation being studied—the independent
variable.
‧The control group holds constant—”controls”—all of the variables
in the experimental group except the one of interest.
Confounding variable
(混淆變項）
‧women during Victorian age
‧Women vs. men?
‧Corsets? (How to design experiment to test this?)
Experiments
‧Strength
–You can make causal inferences
‧Weakness
–Only for independent variables that can be manipulated
Quasi-Experiments
Like experiments but without random assignment
‧Examples
–Males versus females
–Depressed versus non-depressed people
‧Harder to make causal inferences from quasi-experiments than
from experiments
Correlational Research
Studies where the relationships between two or more variables are
measured but not manipulated
‧Examples
–Family income and IQ score
–Sense of humor and health
–MAO (monoamine oxidase) and risk seeking behavior (e.g., sky diving)
–近視與智力
Correlation
How closely interrelated two sets of measured variables are
語言是否天生與心理小測驗
Correlation Research
‧Strength
–Can study variables that cannot be manipulated
‧Weakness
–Correlation does not imply causation
Descriptive Research
‧Naturalistic observation
–Allows one to see patterns in the real world (Motherese: child-directed
speech)
‧Case studies
–Focus on a single interesting case
‧Surveys
–Inexpensive way to determine beliefs
‧Tax for ISS? ??Yes, brain processing??No
‧Limited to people who can report accurately and honestly
‧La Piere’s (1934) study on attitude toward Chinese (serve Chinese people)
上次資料的小整理
‧85%認為語言是後天學來的
‧29%人的意識由生理決定，71%超越生理的部分
‧77%努力睡覺7%call16%坐在床上搧風
Being a Critical Consumer
‧Reliability
‧Validity
–Face validity
–Content validity
–Criterion validity
–Construct validity
Bias and Expectation
‧Response bias
–E.g., some people say yes more than no in some Asian cultures
‧Sampling bias
–Presidential election
‧Experimenter expectancy effects
–Double-blind design (e.g., clever Hans)
‧Pseudopsychology
ESP (extrasensory perception), telepathy: scientific method to decide whether
it ispseudopsychology
成功團隊與領袖特質
Three levels of analysis
‧Who will be a good leader in ISS?
‧Brain: intelligence level
‧Person: conscientious, extraverted, emotionally stable
‧Group: the more people with these characteristics, the better a team is
Statistics: measuring reality
‧Mark Twain: there are three kinds of lies: “lies, damn lies, and
statistics”
‧統計改變了世界
–The lady tasting tea
‧小心解讀統計資料：
–50%離婚率
‧3/10 couples divorce
‧3/3 remarried couple divorce (6/13 divorce)
‧1/3 3rd married one divorce (7/14)
Descriptive Statistics
‧Central tendency
–Mean
–Median
–Mode
–Normal distribution
Descriptive Statistics
‧Variability
–Range
–Standard deviation
‧Relative standing
–Percentile rank
Inferential Statistics
Do patterns in measurement reflect true patterns or just chance variation?
‧Statistical significance
–A measured relationship is not simply due to chance
–Expressed in terms of probability (p)
Inferential Statistics
‧Sampling（e.g., better memory for astronauts?)
–Population
–Sample
–Sampling error
‧Meta-analysis: combining results from different studies
Lying with Statistics
‧Selective reporting
–Only presenting part of the picture
Lying with Graphs
‧Shortening the Y axis
Lying with Graphs
‧Lengthening the Y axis
Lying with Graphs
‧“Tricking” the visual system
–Improper use of third dimension
–Changing width with height
Plotting transformed data
Thinking About Research Studies
‧QALMRI method
–Question
–Alternatives
–Logic of the study
–Method
–Results
–Inferences
Example using QALMRI
‧Q: Can mental practice change later golf-putting?
‧A: (1) positive vs. negative (2) all positive (3) no effect
‧L: If (1) is correct, then….
‧M: Pretest vs. posttest
‧R: positive imagery improved performance
‧I: Only appropriate mental practice helps
–Always think about alternatives!
–Do it yourself! (your hobby)
Level of analysis
Graph design for the eye and mind
‧什麼時候用長條圖？什麼時候用曲線圖？
‧The group
‧The person
美國女太空人瑪莎
‧3D 立體電影「終極太空站」將在台灣的IMAX 電影院放映，片中的主角，也是真
實的女太空人瑪莎艾文絲，昨天來台為該片宣傳，還坐了摩天輪。看來體健的瑪莎
今年54 歲，她在片中是演員兼攝影，耗時３年才拍成此片！
‧「終極太空站」是首部太空紀實的3D 立體電影，觀眾可隨影片與太空人一同從太
空總署升空，並以17500 英里時速，遨遊外太空，相當刺激。IMAX 在台很受歡迎，
先前占了電影「北極特快車」一半的票房，超過台幣2400 萬。
‧以飛行為終身興趣的瑪莎艾文絲，從10 歲起就立志當一名太空人，1974 年在太空
總署當工程師，1984 年正式圓夢當太空人，出過了５次任務，待在外太空時間超過
1318 小時。此片的拍攝由25 位真的太空人完成，所以大家都是演員兼攝影師，經
驗難得，也很辛苦。
‧面對外界對太空人生活的好奇，瑪莎表示，由於外太空用不到肌肉運動，為了防止
萎縮，他們在太空站每天做２小時運動，在太空艙則每天做20 分鐘。另外，從太空
下來地面後，平衡感不好，她也會頭暈好幾天，跌倒是常有的事。 （蕃薯藤新聞，
2005/03/02)
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